Intro to Linguistics Essay Example for Free

Intro to Linguistics EssayThe study of human actors lines including the influence of angiotensin converting enzyme oral communication on any(prenominal) other how voice communication and talking to atomic number 18 formed and agitate within time the rules of the language- how discussions ar formed, the structure of denounces and words relationship surrounded by culture and language how language is acquired- the dish up of language erudition (foreigner verses induce barbarism language). There atomic number 18 both approaches/types of linguistic scientistics 1. Traditional Linguistics- the besides empyrean that rule until the 20 century. 2. Modern Linguistics Traditional Linguistics.Characteristics 1. Proscriptive approach- according to this approach, linguists tell native speakers how to subr bug outine their proclaim stick knife- what atomic number 18 the rules set norms of/ dictating the mighty use of the language, the rules and the right use of the l anguage- educating the native speakers. The finish is to tell the speakers what is considered right or wrong language. 2. Focus on the written language- Most of the emphasis is on the written text, which is considered quality to the spoken language the base of the rules. 3.Diachronic Research (etymology) Historical research- the study of the origins of words and languages, which reveals legion(predicate) connections amidst several(predicate) languages. Due to technological developments, the influence of one language on a nonher is even higher(prenominal) these days. Modern Linguistics At the beginning of the 20 century, on that point was a shift of interest to the by-line The human languages be more difficult and highly unalike than animal communication carcasss- due to awed cognitive human communication readiness (the language faculty).A cognize Swiss linguist, Ferdinand de Sassure- the first linguist to pose the following question what do we know when we know a language ( sire tongue)? By enquire this question the nidus of philology was shifted from grammar to the study of human language as a cognitive ability (cognitive science). The focus shifted to Language faculty ( ) and what it inhabits of. Characteristics 1. Descriptive approach- we observe native speakers use the language, both in write and in speaking, and try to draw conclusions out of it- give away astir(predicate) the changes that the language undergoes through time.Not enkindle in what should be, exclusively rather in what IS. There is no judgment of the use, just observation and description of the current use, in say to analyze and find correlations. 2. Focus is on the spoken language- point of deviance is that the spoken language is more important to the research because of the following * It is less conscious, more natural, spontaneous and self-propelled and thitherfore it reflects better the current use of the language. * Not whole languages bear a written system, but e realone has at least one mother tongue language.* The written language is less natural- one demand to study it in a very logical way whereas the spoken language mother tongue is acquired in a natural assist, reciprocal to bothone (normally in the early years of 3-4). 3. Synchronic Research (current) the focus is not on the origin/History of the words but on the current use of the words today. We atomic number 18 less interested in what drop deaded but rather in what is happening today. Knowing The whereas discriminating intimately 07/11/11 Linguistic Fields 1. Phonetics- the study of linguistic sounds (to a fault called phones) which are consisted of harmonics and vowels.The focus is on the articulation and pronunciation of sounds (independent of the earn/ graphics). How the sound is produced. It is independent of the letters (which is just the graphics). How we produce and perceive sounds. 2. Phonology- deals with sounds in interaction, and when they are brought together into words- they usually affect each other. Cats(s), dogs(z)- approximately intimacy very systematic- ( )) 3. Morphology- examines words structure, and the ship canal words are added into our vocabulary, i. e. how we form new words.Ex- dis/content/ed/ness (the split are also called Morphemes- small units of words) 4. Syntax- deals with sentence structure and the meaning of sentences. We also examine divergences in the midst of languages- the order of verb and its landing field, adj, nouns etc. In assenting, we examine Syntaxic treat , for precedent Without her contributions/ are wakeless to find. At first glance- it looks like some amour is missing in the sentence, when veritablely we did not process it in the right way- we toilet look at the sentence as without her, contributions are hard to find.5. Semantics- the study of meaning- both of words and sentences, and the logic goat them. 6. Pragmatics deals with meaning in context- how we understand one another beyond what is actually utter (the use of the language). For example do you wee-wee the time? One wont answer yes but rather tell the person what time it is. Not like the dry literate person meaning, Pragmatics deal with the actual use of language meaning in context- beyond the literate words that were actually said. 2 - * 6 ( = 6 ) * 6 ( = ) 7. Discourse Analysis- Like Pragmatics, this also examines the use of language, but the focus is on the text. Written vs. spoken text Narratives vs. expository text the use of conjunctions types of text distinguishable tenses complex vs. simple sentences the length of sentences vocabulary etc. 8. Language accomplishment- we examine the process of acquiring a language- mother tongue and then foreign languages.How children acquire their mother tongue so quickly? How does the process happen? Which words are produced first etc. It is related to all the other fields mentioned above. 9. Neuro Ling uistic- examines how linguistic experience is represented in the witticism. For example aphasia- brain injury that affects the part of the brain that understands linguistics. 10. Psycho Linguistic- a very big field that examines the correlation between language and psychological cognitive processes (for example lexical retrieval).sometimes one meaning of a word is more prominent than the other, depending on the context. For example bug- insect/ computing machine related problem. The field also examines what happens when on that point is no context- how we associate between words and its meanings. For example word priming- Duck-(goose/ book)- the word duck primes with goose, faster than with the word book. 11. Historical Linguistics- examines the evolution of languages, the origin of words, and the relation between languages- how they genetically related to one another (Etymology). 12.Computational Linguistics-deals with building artificial intelligence, creating models that try to imitate how language full treatment and use it in various applications. Related to the implementation of linguistics. Information extraction, more practical. (for example Google translate). 13. Clinical linguistics ( )- the use of linguistic tools for speech therapy, for people who drive language disorders (both kids and adults). 14. Social Linguistics- the field that examines the interaction between language and society (socio economic and cultural factors).Socio-linguistics We fill out between dialects- different varieties of the alike(p)(p) language, as a result of many factors. Types of Dialects- 1. Geographic Dialect-changes according to region (city, country). In the states there are so many different dialects, depending on the area one grew up in. 2. Sociolect-typical for a certain group in the society, which has its own favorable, economic and cultural characteristics. 3. Idiolect-dialect that is typical to an individual. It is sometimes gradual, and we dont cease lessly notice it. Usually bases on imitation.Each of us speaks a little bit differently (intonation, pronunciation, vocabulary etc). 21/11/11 Linguistic knowledge- alwaysy 4-5 year old ordure speak the mother tongue language. Where does the ability to understand and speak a language comes from? The 2 opposed approaches argue on the source of that ability/knowledge Is it innate (genes) or acquired (comes from the surroundings, stimulates, feed ass)? Two opposed currents in science, which endure great debate on the nature of human knowledge in general. They argue on the source of the human knowledge 1.Empiricism ( antic lock Hume) -every person comes to the world, as a clean slate- have no knowledge, which means that human knowledge equals the total of experiences. Nothing is innate, we are lonesome(prenominal) equipped with the ability to respond. every(prenominal)one are born equal- with nothing innate. This means humans passel be shaped- their thought understructure be ma nipulated utilize feedback and exposure. 2. Rationalism (Decardes)-claim that human knowledge does not equal the sum of experiences we are born with some innate material- we are equipped with some ability, to which experience is added.Experience is not the only thing All people are equal, but this equality is found on richness- we all share something very basic and innate, to which environment is added. At the beginning of the second half of the 20 century, the logical argument of human knowledge continued with obediences to the human language mother tongue (different theories) Behaviorism- As continuance of Empiricism- there was a current called Behaviorism (BF Skinner, wrote the Verbal Behavior, 1957). B. F.Skinner claimed, based on Empiricism, that Linguistic knowledge is based solely on exposure and the ability to react- to learn from experience. That means everything is acquired, nothing is in the Genes. Skinner also claimed we expand our sets of sentences, by analogy (dif fer in only one thing- thus it is adequate to expand ones use with the other). For example a kid only heard John ate an apple- but he go away be able to create the following sentence John ate an Orange using Analogy.This means, we learn and use language, by exposure +analogy. - In the following sentences, configuration of who does what changes (relationships between the entities) when changing the word told to expect and still, it is automatically understood by a child in his mother tongue John told blossom to clean the room John promised Bill to clean the room. How? -analogy is not enough to explain the above. -Noam Chomsky (Influenced from Rationalism wrote the syntactic Structures, 1957) -a linguistic who argued against Skinners observations, claiming Analogy is not enough and we have to assume inborn/innate linguistic knowledge, reciprocal to all human beings ( unheeding of their language or culture), which is also known as the Hypothesis of innateness. The experience and the feedback are mapped on to these language biological properties (encoded in our genes). The experience and feedback are not enough to explain mother tongue knowledge We have to add it to something innate. Language is uncompletely innateEvidence Chomsky proposed to enforce his hypothesis 1. Properties of human languages (natural languages, animals communication systems are excluded)- * Homogeneity- except for pathological cases, all human beings acquire at least one mother tongue more or less at the analogous time regardless of their region, culture, socio-economical condition etc. This implies there is something biological in the acquiring of a mother tongue language- we are all the same. * Infiniteness- language is infinite- we have the ability to produce and understand an endless number of sentences, including sentences that we have neer heard before.We have the ability to expand the language (for example- we never count to 1,000,000 but we can). * Identical properties acr oss languages- there are some properties that all languages share ( whence- it has to be in the genes, otherwise how can it be explained? ). For example * All languages have nouns and verbs thus, it has to be some inborn categories. * Universal grammer rules/structures, that all languages share * John said that Mary bought a car. What did John say Mary bought? * Bill said that John said that Mary bought a car. What did Bill say that John said that Mary bought?* John spread the report that Mary bought a car. What did John spread the rumor that Mary bought? Ungrammatical sentence- any speaker go away know this sentence is ungrammatical- impossible in face. What prevents speakers of using the above structure intuitively (in other languages as well)? Chomsky claimed that there are universal constraints (in all grammer of all languages) that prevent it. 28/11/11 2. Properties of the process of language acquisition (mother tongue) * Process is quick and efficient- child has to acquir e a very complex system of rules, and he does it by the age of 4-5.By the age of 5 he already masters the language (in comparison to the long and complex process of learning a foreigner language). It shows that there is something innate behind it, otherwise- it would have been a quick process also when learning foreigner language. * Critical period/age- there is a certain age in which the child moldiness be open to a language (the innate system has to be stimulated, activated), in order to acquire it- the age is usually around 6-8, and in some extreme cases it can go until adolescence (16).If it was not activated during the critical period, the child will have no mother tongue- he will have no grammer. He will be able to communicate in a basic function, but without the richness and infinity of the mother tongue acquisition, since the brain is no longer elastic enough to acquire a mother tongue. The issue of critical period provides support for the importance of both exposer and in nate theories. Chomsky agrees that exposer is crucial, but it is crucial to activate innate abilities.If it was only exposer it would have been possible to acquire a mother tongue at any age. * Process is spontaneous/ immune against external interference- the process happens by itself and the teacher/ parent cannot manipulate it. MCNeal (1964)-research that shows you cannot manipulate childs grammer, it will eventually change by itself with exposer. * Identical stages across languages- children acquire their mother tongue in parallel stages across linguistics, more or less at the same time, regardless of the language.This shows that there is some biological aspect to the process of mother tongue acquisition we have to assume something innate in order for the process to be so universal. (First they babble, then acquire first words, combining 2 words together, then start using sentences). * Poverty of stimuli- stimuli(the input) is poor- it is not enough to explain completely how a child acquires and masters his mother tongue a. The stimuli is partial and consists of errors- the child can never be exposed to everything, still he makes up sentences he has never heard before.What he is exposed to is limited, nevertheless what he can produce is endless. In addition, the stimuli consist of errors- he child doesnt always listen to complete/ grammatical correct sentences the input he hears consists of partial sentences and grammatical errors yet the children know how to filter the errors and eventually acquire a perfect grammer. b. There is no teaching- the process of acquiring a mother tongue involves no methodological and pedagogical process (in regard to grammer). c. No negative evidence- there are mistakes that no child will ever make, even though he is not told ahead not to make them.For example John thinks he is smart (he can be either John or some dust else) VS. He thinks John is smart (he can never refer to John). When examining language acquisition, we see children making many mistakes, but no child will ever use the second sentence when he wants to refer to John. No child will make such(prenominal) mistakes to begin with- they just know, without being told ahead. De Sassure was the first one to ask what do we know when we know a language? What does it mean to know a language? He secernateed between the following call * Langue-the rules of the language, that are agreed upon by some society.The rules of a language, but from a social point of take care (a social term). * battle cry-everything we use or say- the way we actually use the language (What we actually do, language wise). Linguists are generally more interested in the Langue (the knowledge). De Sassure didnt relate to the question of innateness- what abilities, if any, we have in our minds 12/12/11 Noam Chomsky utilise 2 other terms Competence vs. Performance. 1. Performance the same as Parole performance is how we actually use the language what we actually write or say. 2. Competence is not on the button the same as Langue.Both relate to the rules of the language, but Langue is about the society, the community (grammer is something social, that we all agree on- social interaction creating social agreement) and Competence is about the individual (the system one has in his mind some of it comes from the genes and some from the environment). Competence is the ability that each of us has to produce and understand an endless number of sentences. Every speaker of every language, has the ability (whether it is innate or not). The point of view of Chomsky and De Sassure is different when relating to the rules of the language.In new-fangled linguistics- the focus is on the Langue- competence and not directly what we say/do with the language (the main goal is to crack the black box and understand how the system works). The performance is the mean to learn about the competence, not the direct end. It teaches us/indicates about the competence the way we spe ak or write tells us about how the knowledge is organized in ones mind. The main question that linguists ask is what does competence consist of? Chomskys Model UG+EXPOSER= G. Chomsky assumes innateness and that language faculty is to some extent universal (some things are common to all languages).He Offers a detail model for this question When a child is born he is in the initial state. In this state, he has some particular knowledge, shared by all languages Universal Grammer (UG) it is the grammer that is common to all languages. In addition to the difference in vocabulary, there are grammatical differences between languages by the end of the critical period, he has more than the UG, he ends up with Particular Grammer (PG, G)- specific grammer of a specific language. There are many Gs, as many as the number of languages in the world.A child is equipped with universal grammer, common to all languages, and during the first years he is exposed to his mother tongue and how it takes agency (feedback, corrections, mistakes etc)- and acquires particular/specific grammer. UG+EXPOSER= G. The G is a combination of something innate and something that comes from the environment. What does the UG consist of? According to Chomskys model, UG consists of two things 1. Principles- rules that are innate and that are common to all languages (things that dont change at all from one language to another, such as the earth of nasal concurring(a)s).2. Parameters- those are also rules that are innate, and are also part of universal grammer but in contrast to principals, these are open rules, whose values (fillings) are acquired during the exposer. The values are not common to different languages, Thus they have to be acquired via exposer. For example in all language there is a way out in every sentence but in some languages the subject must be a separate entity- which means the subject position is always occupied vs. in some languages the subject can be dropped ( position d oes not allow the dropping of a subject cant say ate an apple.We must add a subject vs. Hebrew- represents the subject. In the French language, we are not allowed to drop the subject, even when it is known who did the action Jai mange la pomme- the French ai is like the Hebrew , yet we still cannot drop the J we have to have a separate entity for the subject). This argumentation is called the Null subject parameter ( )- The Parameter the subject must be pronounced separately The Values of the Parameter (that has to be filled- determined through the acquisition process) Yes or No.In Hebrew and Italian the value is no (in some cases, we can have a sentence without a subject), in English and French the value is Yes. During the critical period, the child is exposed to the data in his mother tongue and they acquire the values to the fixed parameters (the parameter is innate, its values though are not innate- they change from language to language and acquired in the childs criti cal period). Another Parameter is * It is voluptuous outside- * It seems that Marry is late- * There is a cat in the room- In English the slip byrence of the pronouns (functioning as the sentences subject) it and there is a must they cannot be dropped (it is not grammatical, although one will be perfectly understood if sanatorium say it) in Hebrew, we can drop them. Even though semantically we dont need the subject, in English it must be filled. These pronouns are called Expletive / Pleonastic Pronouns- pronouns that do not refer to an entity, but theyre only function is to fill the subject position. They HAVE NO SEMANTIC ROLE, THEY ARE ONLY THERE TO foregather THE POSTION OF THE SUBJECT.We distinguish between pleonastic pronouns and referential pronouns, which refer to some kind of entity (he, she, w, they etc). It and There are not always expletive pronouns- they can also function as referential pronouns It is hot outside (expletive) vs. I cant eat the soup, (referentia l) the cat is there (referential) vs. there is a cat in the room (expletive). We can relate to it as two parameters 1. Parameter an expletive pronoun exists values yes/no. (In English- yes, in Hebrew- no). 2. Parameter a subject is a must values yes/no.(We can say that if a language must have a subject, it will necessary have Expletive pronouns and vice versa If the subject is not a must- there are no expletive pronouns. there might be, but they will not be a must). The two things come together- * Cluster of properties- The Parameters come in clusters- one affects/ can teach about the other. The existence of Principles and Parameters strengthens the hypothesis of innateness, because it shows the followrence of certain grammer structures is not random- there is something consistent across different languages, which therefore must be predetermined, innate.19/12/11 Some languages require an independent subject and in addition- they have expletive pronouns (it seems that the quiz will be difficult- expletive this soup is not tasty because it is cold. The it is referential- points to an entity). proposition Stranding and Pied Piping Who did you speak to? can also be asked as followed To whom did you speak? - These are two possible grammatical structures that manifest the same idea. It is not possible in Hebrew This construction is called- Preposition Stranding- you retract the proposition by itself leaving the proposition by itself at the end of the sentence. It can be viewed as a parameter, differentiating languages. Another construction/parameter is Pied Piping- locating the proposition at the beginning of the sentence. This parameter is valued yes in both English and Hebrew (allowed in both languages). Material for the quiz is up to here -Phonetics and Phonology- These are both fields that deal with sound and specifically linguistic sounds (phones- ) sounds that are parts of a language. Phones are divided into consonants (b, l, r, m) and vowel s (e, a, i ). The differentiation doesnt refer to the letters, but to the sounds that are used naturally/ automatically.(Since the same sound can be expressed/ represented by different symbols/letters, for example the sound K- is represented by 4 letters k, c, q, ch. We will refer to all 4 as K). In Phonetics- Different sounds are examined in different languages how they are produced and how they are perceived- it is a technical field regarding how pronunciation works.One sound can be expressed/ represented by different symbols/letters or one letter u represents many sounds university, fur, put, cut etc. Conclusion there is no correspondence between sound and symbol. Phonetic systems (systems of symbols- used for transcription- write exactly as you here it- distinguish between recite and pronunciation) 1. International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) a system of symbols, used mainly by linguists, in which every sound corresponds to one symbol and vice versa. 2. American Phonetic Alphabet (APA) similar, yet competing system to the IPA.These are two similar, yet competing, artificial languages/ systems, dealing with the ambiguity of the languages/ with the lack of correspondence between sound and symbol. Both systems are based on English letters, other than special sounds/exceptions (that have no one specific letter in English that prescribe them) such as * in order to indicate/transcribe sh we use stretched big s (IPA) or s(APA)- (the should be upside down) * ch= t+stretched big S with a bow on top of them (IPA) or c (APA) * for th (such as in thin) = 0 with a line across it (APA+IPA) 26/12/11 A negligible p channel- * big- pig * sing- sang.* dean- teen (The only difference is the phone- t vs d. The spelling is irrelevant) * knight- light These words are different in meaning, yet they are different in only one sound. The switch of the consonant g/ p changes the meaning of the word. This kind of word agrees are called minimal bracing-a p fashion of words that di ffer from one another in meaning and in one phone (sound) only. (Only one difference in pronunciation- the spelling is irrelevant) * night- knight are not a minimal pair, because there is no difference in pronunciation. Phoneme- Phoneme- a minimal linguistic unit that can change the meaning.One of the goals of recognizing minimal pairs is to recognize the basic sounds in a language, that can cause a change of meaning. We use the tool of minimal pairs to identify and distinguish between the Phonemes of a language. Aspirated consonant ( ) * Spy vs. pie- when we pronounce pie, there is a greater puff of air when pronounced. This is also the case in stole vs. tall (in tall we puff much more air). These are aspirated consonants, which are marked with a little h on top of the consonant. They are two types for the same consonant- the regular and the aspirated one, where we puff a greater amount of air (pie tall).Are the aspirated consonants phonemes? (Can they distinguish between a minim al pair? -can we find a pair of words that the only difference between them is aspirated consonant vs. non-aspirated). In English, there is no such pair yet in the Hindi language we can find several examples. Conclusions 1. In English, they are not phonemes (vs. Hindi), because they can never occur in the same environment/location of the word, which means they are 2 manifestations/versions of the same thing. We can predict in which environment/ when the aspirated consonant will occur. 2. nominal pairs are used to distinguish between phonemes and also to determine which consonants and vowel are not phonemes. 2/1/2012 Pig big (minimal pair) vs. Pie, spy (not a minimal pair since there are 2 differences in pound). In English, aspirated and regular Complementary Distribution- these two sounds never occur at the same environment/ same location of the words, which means they are two manifestations of the same thing of the phone p. This means P is the phoneme which has two manifestation s aspirated and regular (non-aspirated). This means that this phone has two allophones.Two ways of language representation- 1. Phonemes- the general term for linguistics sounds. These are the basic sounds of a language, and are language specific (are not the same in different languages). They are part of the Underlying Representation (UR) the way and the place words and sounds in specific, are represented in our mind- in the backstage- abstract representation. The phoneme has two manifestations one is the actual p and the other is the aspirated one. 2. What we actually say are allophones. Allophones are in the Phonetic/ Representation (PR) what comes out of our mouths (articulation).Every phoneme is also an allophone, but not the other way around Thus, there are some things that are represented in the PR, yet are not represented in the UR (like the aspirated p). In the Ur we have the regular P phoneme, which has two manifestations in the PR In English, the only case we see an aspir ated P is in the beginning of a word and before a vowel (both must occur together). In all other case the P will not be aspirated. For example Possible, put, pink, pan, etc. vs. apply, spring, run away etc. This means the aspirated P has no independence existence- we can predict its occurrence.The default is the regular P and only in a specific environment will have an aspirated P. The aspirated P doesnt exist in the UR Another example is regular N vs. the back N They cannot distinguish between minimal pairs in English- will never occur in the same environment. We will find the back n only before the sounds k and g- in specific environment, which is predictable. For ex bank, Bangkok, rank, chunk, rang, ring, thanks, bring. The normal N is the default will occur everywhere else, except for before the sounds g and k sounds.These two allophones are two versions of the same thing (of the one phoneme) that never occur in the same environment- complementary distribution. N is the phonem e, which has two allophones n and back n. We can predict exactly where each of the manifestations will occur. * The phoneme is in the UR and the allophones are in the PR. * The default is always in the UR The phoneme. * The allophones are always in complementary distribution- meaning they never occur in the same environment and will never distinguish between minimal pairs.You can nver find in English 2 words where the only difference between them will be n and back n. * Minimal pairs are the tools to identify phonemes. Distinctive Features 1. Aspiration The pair pal- pal (with aspirated p) in Hindi these two words are different in meaning and in one phone only. In specific, they are different in one possess only aspirated vs. non-aspirated. This means, they constitute a minimal pair (In Hindi). Aspiration this feature in Hindi unlike the English, we have both because they have independent existence- each of them is a phoneme on its own.Aspiration this feature in Hindi, unlike English, is a Distinctive Feature- a feature that distinguishes between 2 phonemes in the same language and as a result it can create a difference between minimal pairs. Aspiration is not a distinctive feature in Hebrew and English. It is a distinctive feature in Hindi language. 2. Voicing ( )- Dean Teen d- Is a voice (+voice) consonant ( ) and t is voiceless (- voice). This feature, called voicing, creates different meaning in both words. Thus, it is a distinctive feature in English, because it can distinguish between minimal pairs.Minimal pair- a minimal pair is a pair of words that differ from one another in one meaning, 1 phone (sound) only, and the 2 phones must be different in one feature 9/1/2012 Phonetic features of consonants- What makes sound/phones different from one another? Linguistic sounds are called phones, and are divided into consonants and vowels. The difference between the two in the production of vowels the air flows freely, however in the production of conson ants the air is blocked to some extent. The speech organs- body organs that are involved in the production of phones (Lips, tongue, nose, teeth, and palate).Generally, the following are involved the oral cavity and the nasal cavity ( ). The consonants differ from one another according to 3 criteria 1. Place of articulation- the location in which the air is blocked and the consonant is produced (B- in the lips T- in the tongue P-in the lips and teeth) 2. Manner of articulation ( ) relates to the manner of the air flow and the degree of blocking. For example n- blocked in the nose. 3. Voicing- relates to the vibration/ the lack of vibrat.